Thursday, October 31, 2019
Are banks losing their traditional role Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words
Are banks losing their traditional role - Essay Example However, over the last few years, banking has changed radically and is expected to continue changing in a foreseeable future. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the principal functions of banks, the emerging challenges and the impact of market and global dynamism on the future of banks and banking institutions. The types of institutions performing banking business have been changing. Banks seem to be foregoing their traditional role. In many countries, the income coming off-balance sheet exceeds the income coming from the traditional intermediary roles in finances. Banks have become financial services organizations. The actual role of banks is increasingly becoming ambiguous since it is no longer clear what banks are or the details of the businesses they conduct. The actual definition of a bank seems to be missing. This has caused banks to be under intensive regulations compared to many financial institutions. Banks the world over are experiencing formidable challenges. Banking institutions have been losing their past monopolies and perceived comparative advantages. These attributes have underpinned the dominant positions taken by the banks in the financial systems. Banks are increasingly facing stiff competition from potential or actual suppliers of banking services (Fredrick 2005). Some of these include non-financial institutions of banking, capital markets, non-banking institutions of finances and money markets. The entry of electronic banking has caused the retail banking markets to become relatively closed (Skinner 2007). This has made it difficult for the foreign banks to enter into such markets. In other cases, the corporate clients are considering having in-house banks. Under this initiative, the banking operations are conducted through internalized banking operations. This is forcing banks to shed staff and closed down branches. The entry of new technologies and alternative means of banking services delivery is pushing banks to the reconsider rest ructuring to meet the demands of the dynamic nature of the market (Skinner 2007). Banks have been squeezed by inroads affecting their conventional businesses and ever growing competition, banks are swiftly expanding to unit trusts, insurance and life insurance sectors (King 2010). As these trends emerge, banking institutions have been coerced to conduct major structural changes in their mode of operations. Major structural changes have been emerging in the financial systems. There has been a push to increase the strength of institutions that deal with saving and investment businesses (Gap 2003). These institutions have a growing role in the modern financial systems. At the same time, the financial markets have been experiencing extreme dynamism. The world is having complex financial instruments and globalised financial markets. The role of the managers of institutional funds has been on the rise in the financial markets (Skinner 2007). The traditional distinctions between financial institutions have been gradually eroded. New financial suppliers have been entering the markets at an increasing rate. There seems to be a declining share of bank loans in the corporate sector borrowing (Skinner 2007). The money markets mutual funds have experienced tremendous growth. The business of the corporate lending has been steadily declining which the financial mar
Tuesday, October 29, 2019
Integumentary System Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words
Integumentary System - Lab Report Example This occurs after the neuron has reached action potential and it is the time that is necessary before the neuron is ready to stimulate the movement of ions for another electrical charge. There are two different kinds of refractory periods: absolute and relative. Absolute refractory periods are when it is impossible to initiate another transmission of electrical charge after action potential is reached. Relative refractory periods are which transmission of another electrical charge is inhibited, but it is not impossible to initiate. There are three different states in which neurons must exist in order to produce neural communication: depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization. Depolarization is when the inside of the cell becomes more increasingly positive as ions move in and out. If there is enough movement of ions to create a large change in electrical potential, action potential will result. Repolarization occurs after depolarization and action potential have occurred. Du ring this, ions move back into the cell which causes it to be negative again. Hyperpolarization is when the cell becomes increasingly negative which can inhibit action potential from being reached which inhibits the cell from transmitting an electrochemical signal.
Sunday, October 27, 2019
Periodontal Health of Libyan Pregnant Women
Periodontal Health of Libyan Pregnant Women Abstract Background: Pregnancy-related changes are most severe on gingival tissue; those observed changes have been the object of interest for a long time. A number of researchers reported the association between periodontal health of pregnant women and socio-economic status. No study on such subject has been performed so far in Libya. The aims of the present study are to evaluate the periodontal status in a sample of Libyan pregnant women and to identify the association between various socio-economic variables (education, occupation and income) and womens periodontal status. Pregnant womens age, stage of pregnancy and number of pregnancies were particularly considered in the analysis of the data. The obtained data could be helpful in planning oral health promotion and periodontal disease prevention programs for pregnant women. Materials and Methods: A total of 34 Libyan pregnant women in varying stage of pregnancy attending the gynecology department at the policlinics in Benghazi-Libya const ituted the target population. After the participants filled in a questionnaire, their periodontal status was assessed by the researcher using the Community Periodontal Index (CPI), any relationship to socio-economic variables (educational level, occupational status and income) and womens age, stage of pregnancy and number of pregnancies was evaluated. Data-entry and analysis were performed with the help of SPSS. Results: The results showed that the CPI scores tends to increase as socio-economic status decrease. Furthermore, the CPI scores tends to increase as womens age, stage of pregnancy and number of pregnancies increase. Discussion: The CPI scores of pregnant women were high indicating a moderate to severe periodontal disease. Such finding may be related to the fact that the majority of pregnant women were relatively old, in their third trimester, multigravidae, with primary level of education and house wives. Conclusion: The results revealed that periodontal health of Libyan pr egnant women tends to associate with socio-economic status, womens age, stage of pregnancy and number of pregnancies. Therefore oral health promotion and periodontal disease prevention programs should target the identified risk groups. Introduction         The introduction will give a description of the context within which the study took place, statement of the problem, description of the country in which the study took place and the policlinics in which the study was undertaken. Also the introduction will provide information on the motivation and objective of this study and the study question. Background         Sex-specific medicine is medicine tailored to meet the specific needs of men and women, based on the results of scientific research. Clearly, more research is needed, particularly as it relates to women. Studies are under way and more are being designed to answer specific questions and determine specific strategies to prevent and treat diseases that have particular impact on women (Krejci Bissada, 2002). Womens health issues have come to the forefront of medical research only within the last decade. This came about only after significant pressure was exerted by physicians and activist groups that recognized that the majority of clinical trials involved men primarily and that sex differences were not being addressed (Angell, 1993). These inequities prompted the Institutes of Health to begin funding research focused on sex differences. This, in turn, triggered other investigations into a variety of womens health issues, and an increasing body of sex-spe cific scientific literature has emerged (Krejci Bissada, 2002). The prevailing medical viewpoint relates to biological functions in the male as the norm, while the female is considered to be exactly the same except for reproductive functions. This has lead to a lack of awareness of the need to study the implications of gender differences in periodontal tissues (Covington, 1996). Although teeth are gender free, the supporting tissues of the periodontium are vulnerable to the physiological variations in the levels of circulating steroid hormones in males and females (Tilakaratne et al., 2000).         One of the enduring puzzles of public health is why some populations are healthier than others. For years dentists and periodontists have been aware of the effects of pregnancy on the oral health of expectant mothers.         Pregnancy is associated with great anatomical and physiological changes of varying kinds (Herman, 1923). Pregnancy-related changes are most severe on gingival tissue; those observed changes have been the object of interest for a long time. Many investigators have stated that bleeding on probing and increased periodontal pocket are more common in pregnancy. The severity of the gingival inflammation in pregnant women is greater when compared to gingival inflammation in normal women (Hiling, 1950). All the studies show a high prevalence and an increasing severity of gingivitis during pregnancy. In an effort to determine the nature of this increased inflammation, many more studies have since been carried out. Three main schools of thought have prevailed in regard to its etiology. Some believe in a local etiology (Monash, 1931), others in vitamin C as a primary factor (Hiling, 1950), and others in the importance of the hormonal factors (Ziskin Nesse, 1946).         Socio-economic status is associated with a variety of health-related behaviors. Epidemiological studies indicate that lower SES is associated with poorer health outcomes. A multitude of disease conditions are associated with socioeconomic status, and cause/effect (e.g., social stress as a contributory cause of heart disease) is plausible (Marmot Wilkinson, 1999) Generally, those who are better educated, wealthier, and live in more desirable circumstances enjoy better health status than the less educated and poorer segments of society. Periodontal disease is a common disease in humans that may be affected by the socio-economic status. The effects of the socio-economic status on periodontal conditions in pregnant women have been reported by a number of researchers and there has been speculation as to whether hormonal changes during pregnancy or pre-existing conditions of general, oral health and socio-economic status have a greater effect on the develop ment of periodontal disease during pregnancy. Dentistry can be vital in improving prenatal outcome and maternal or fetal dental health through screening, referral and education of pregnant patients. Statement of the Problem         Relevant topic in pregnant women concern. No study on such subject is being recorded so far in Libya. Given the possible association between periodontal disease and severe systemic conditions such as cardiovascular disease, periodontal status may itself be a risk factor for mortality (Beck et al., 1996). What has come to the forefront of recent periodontal investigations, however, is the relationship between periodontitis and adverse pregnancy outcomes (Krejci Bissada, 2002). A recent report (Jeffcoat et al., 2001) indicated that the risk of preterm birth was directly related to the severity of periodontitis in the mother. Pregnancy affects the initiation and progression of gingivitis and periodontitis (Brian Perry, 2002) and this disease if left untreated, can lead to teeth loss. Periodontal disease is a chronic condition with an infectious origin. Person-to-person transmission of periodontal pathogens occurs via saliva, and increased frequency of e xposure to infectious saliva increases the likelihood of bacterial colonization (Asikainen et al., 1997). Periodontal pathogens can be transmitted among family members (Asikainen et al., 1997), and familial transmission may be a risk factor for progression to periodontal disease (Zambon, 1994). Periodontal disease was chosen because its prevention and treatment provide a second major part of the workload of practicing dentists. Both dental caries and destructive periodontal diseases are highly prevalent and create much morbidity all over the world because they are very expensive to treat, requiring skilled personnel and considerable amounts of professional time.         Understanding socioeconomic influences on periodontal health in pregnant women is important for planning and implementing effective prevention strategies against periodontal disease since many studies have shown that the periodontal disease in pregnant women not only influences their own oral health status but also may increase their risk of other diseases such as atherosclerosis (Slade et al., 2003), rheumatoid arthritis (Mercado et al., 2000), diabetes (Thorstensson et al., 1996), impact pregnancy outcome (Offenbacher et al., 1996; Jeffcoat et al., 2001), and their offsprings risk of developing early and severe dental caries (Caufield et al., 1993; Kohler et al., 1983). Libya         This study took place in Libya, officially known as the Great Socialist Peoples Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Located in North Africa and bordering the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Libya lies between Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Ghad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west and has a coastline of around 1900 kilometers along the Mediterranean Sea (World Health Organization [WHO], 2007). With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometers, Libya is the 17th largest country in the world by area (United Nations [UN], 2003). The climate is mostly dry and desert like in nature. However, the northern regions enjoy a milder Mediterranean climate. Tripoli is the capital. The main language spoken in Libya is Arabic, which is also the official language. The religion in Libya is Islam. Libya is culturally similar to its neighboring Maghrebian states. Libyans consider themselves very much a part of a wider Arab community. The flag of Libya consists of a green field with no other characteristics. It is the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design, insignia, or other details.         The main cities are concentrated in the northern part of the country along the coastal area. The six largest cities are Tripoli, Benghazi, Alzawia, Musrata, Derna and Sirte. The total population in 2007 was 6.16 million people (United Nations Population Division [UNPD], 2007). About 85% of the population is urban (UNPD, 2007), mostly concentrated in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi. The total life expectancy in 2007 was 74 (female 76.5, males 71.3) (UNPD, 2007). Libya is witnessing an increase in the adolescent age group with 32% of the population below 15 years old in 2006 (WHO, 2007). As a result, the countrys population is fairly young, and the proportion of Libyans aged 65 years and over was 5% in 2006 (WHO, 2007).         Libya is an oil-producing country, with its main income coming from oil revenue, as well as some petrochemical industry and agricultural activities. Libya receives no external funds as development aid from any source of any kind (WHO, 2007). Health care, including preventive, curative and rehabilitation services, is provided to all citizens free of charge by the Government. Health expenditure as a percentage of GDP in Libya is about 3.3% (WHO, 2007) and health expenditure per capita in Libya is US $222 (WHO, 2007). The Government spends 60 million Libyan dinars (1$ =1.256LD) annually for the medical treatment of Libyan citizens abroad (WHO, 2007).         Population with access to health services (urban and rural) is 100% (WHO, 2007). Major hospitals are located in urban areas. It should be noted that the country has achieved high coverage in most basic health areas (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP], 2002). The mortality rate for children aged less than 5 years fell from 160 per 1000 live births in 1970 to 18 in 2007(United Nations International Childrens Emergency Fund [UNICEF], 2007). In 2007, 99% of one-year-old children were vaccinated against tuberculosis and 98% against measles (UNICEF, 2007). All payments in the private sector come directly as an out-of-pocket payment with the exception of some banks, private companies and the oil sector, which subsidize their employees medical coverage in the private sector. Some communicable diseases still pose a problem, such as AIDS, hepatitis, measles and tuberculosis. Noncommunicable diseases have become a major cause of mortality and morbidity. The prevalence and incidence of noncommunicable diseases has increased dramatically over the past 20 years (WHO, 2007). Contributing factors include ageing, injuries and lifestyle habits. Cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, diabetes and cancer account for significant mortality and morbidity rates and have put considerable strain on health expenditure (WHO, 2007). The main causes of death are cardiovascular diseases 37%, cancer 13%, road traffic injuries (RTI) 11% and diabetes 5% (WHO, 2007).Tobacco use among youths of school age (13-15 years) is alarming, 15% of students currently use some form of tobacco products and 6% of students currently smoke cigarettes(WHO, 2007). Obesity is also emerging as a major health problem. Road traffic accidents (RTA), which result in 4-5 deaths per day and even higher figures for disability, are a major burden of disease (WHO, 2007). It is fair to say that Libya has, overall, made a very good job of providing comprehensive healthcare to all Libyan citizens whatever their regional domicile in the country (Otman Karlberg, 2007). 2nd March and Ibn-Zohr Policlinics         The policlinics in Libya perform a key role in maintaining health in Libyas population. Anyone in Libya can use the policlinics. It serves the Libyan people free of charge .There are 39 policlinics in Libya, with the capacity of handling approximately 50.000 to 60.000 patients. They are out-patient clinic for all medical specialties staffed by specialty physicians in most areas of medicine. This study was undertaken at the 2nd March and Ibn-Zohr Policlinics.         The 2nd March policlinic is located at Al-Hadaek area in Benghazi-Libya, well connected to other parts of the city and can be reached within 15-20 minutes by car from any part of the city. Open from 8 am to 3:30 pm, six days a week. This policlinic has a variety of different healthcare services staffed by specialized physicians and excellent nursing staff. It comprises eight different departments, namely, dental department, gynecology department, internal medicine department, pediatrics department, public health department, ophthalmology department, first aid department and pharmacy. The dental department provides diagnosis, extraction, scaling and radiological services. The internal medicine department provides chronic disease management, acute illness treatment and follow-up of patients discharged from hospitals. The gynecology department provides family planning to prevent unwanted pregnancies, to manage gynecological disorders and to provide contra ceptive information and services and also antenatal and postnatal care. The pediatrics department provides management of common childhood illnesses. The public health department provides access to the national immunization programme which is a major part of policlinic services, and growth monitoring for babies. The ophthalmology department provides ophthalmological disorders management. The First aid department provides first aid services, bandage changing and minor surgery procedures like dressing and removal of stitches. The outpatient pharmacy provides the medication for the Libyan people free of charge. The typical patient visit flow starts with registering at the reception; then the patient is referred to the clinic according to his/her complain, takes a number and waits for his/her turn, sees the doctor, goes to laboratory or X-ray (if required), sees the doctor again then drops the prescription at the pharmacy and takes the medication or is further referred to the hospital.         The Ibn-Zohr policlinic is located at El-Berka area in Benghazi-Libya, and can be reached within 10 minutes by car from any part of the city having the same functioning system as other policlinics in Libya. It comprises four different departments, namely, dental department, gynecology department, public health department and dermatology department. Hypothesis         For this study it was assumed that periodontal disease is common in Libyan women and may be influenced by pregnancy and socio-economic status. This study was conducted based on a quantitative approach to the association between socioeconomic status and periodontal health condition of pregnant women, considering 34 Libyan married pregnant women, varying in age from 20 to 41 years old, living in Benghazi-Libya. To avoid confounders, the participants for this study were recruited at random and from two policlinics in different geographic areas in Benghazi-Libya .The participants were recruited from the gynecology clinic at both 2nd March and Ibn-Zohr policlinics, during June 2009. After filing in a questionnaire by the participants about socio-economic status, the participants received an oral examination by the researcher to evaluate their periodontal health status. All socioeconomic components will be discussed in relation to their impact on the periodontal health of pregnant women. The socio-economic components that were considered in this study were: education, occupation and income. The womens age, number of pregnancy and stage of pregnancy were particularly considered in the analysis. Objectives         The aims of this study were to evaluate the periodontal status in a sample of pregnant Libyan women and to investigate the relationship between various socio-economic variables (education, occupation and income) and the identified periodontal status.         It will be interesting to compare and to investigate the different components of SES and periodontal condition of Libyan pregnant women and see if some have more influence than others. To analyze and discuss the data in the light of a possible influence of socio-economic status related factors on periodontitis in pregnant women, information about pregnant womens age, stage of pregnancy and number of pregnancies was obtained and particularly considered in the analysis of the data. The data thus obtained could be helpful in planning oral health promotion and periodontal disease prevention programs for pregnant women. The Study Question         This paper focused on the association between Libyan pregnant womens socioeconomic status and their periodontal health condition in Benghazi-Libya. This study seeks to answer the following research question: Is there an association between Libyan pregnant womens socioeconomic status and their periodontal health status? Literature Review         This section contains what is known on the most important aspects related to the research question. It will show the past work done on the stated study question and what is known about the problem that is being studied. The literature section provides in-depth information on the socio-economic status history in Libya including a section specifically for Libyan women, and will give in-depth information on the periodontal health, periodontal health and socio-economic status, periodontal health and pregnancy, and on periodontal health, pregnancy and socio-economic status. Methods and Search Strategy         Different methods and strategies to search for information on periodontal health, pregnancy and socioeconomic status were used. Search of the literature for review papers published in medical electronic databases such as PubMed and bibliographies were undertaken using a set of predetermined keywords. The search strategy was initially developed and implemented for PubMed but revised appropriately to suite the other database. Furthermore different individual journals were searched such as the Journal of American Dental Association and others included on the BioMed Central and the Springer Link websites. Additionally, official Libyan websites concerning general information about Libya and socio-economic status history in Libya were searched such as www.gpc.gov.ly. No restriction was placed on the year of publication.         The search strategy involved using a combination of terms relating to periodontal health, pregnancy and socio-economic status to identify relevant articles. For periodontal health, the following keywords were used: periodontal health, periodontal disease, periodontal status, dental status, oral health, oral disease, periodontitis, gingivitis, periodontal destruction, periodontal condition, and peridontium. For pregnancy, the following keywords were used: pregnancy, pregnant, gestation, reproductive, and gravid. For socio-economic status, the following keywords were used: socio-economic, socio-demographic, and socio-cultural, social class, social factors, education, occupation, employment, income and finance.         The titles and abstracts of the studies identified by the search were screened for possible inclusion in the review. All potentially relevant articles were thoroughly reviewed. Their reference lists were searched for any related articles.         The initial search revealed approximately 630 studies. After review of the abstract and / or complete text and after discarding the duplicates, around 125 collected articles served to identify potential articles that related to this study. The studies were grouped into categories; periodontal health, pregnancy, socio-economic status, periodontal health and pregnancy, periodontal health and socio-economic status, and periodontal health, pregnancy and socio-economic status (relevant studies). Socio-economic Status (SES) History in Libya         The living standards of Libyans have improved significantly since the 1970s, ranking the country among the ones with the highest quality of life in Africa. Urbanization, developmental projects, and high oil revenues have enabled the Libyan government to elevate its peoples living standards. The social and economic status of women has particularly improved. Various subsidized or free services (health, education, housing, and basic food products) have ensured basic necessities. Many direct and indirect subsidies and free services have helped raise the economic status of low-income families, a policy which has prevented extreme poverty. Libya is not a highly polarized society divided between extremes of wealth and poverty (CIA World Factbook, 2001).         Regarding the growing role of women in Libyan society, undoubtedly impressive amount of legislation dealing with womens equality has been developed recently (Otman Karlberg, 2007). Socio-economic Status (SES) Components         Socio-economic status (SES) is a complex phenomenon predicted by a broad spectrum of variables that is often conceptualized as a combination of financial, occupational, and educational influences (Mueller Parcel, 1981). Socio-economic status may be defined as any measure which attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of indicators such as occupation, income, and education (Marshall, 1998). The social and economic conditions in an individuals life are important determinants of its overall health situation. Most crucial factors are hereby education, employment and income (WHO, 2005). One of the strongest and most consistent predictors of a persons morbidity and mortality experience is that persons socioeconomic status (Marmot et al., 1987). Socioeconomic status is typically divided into three categories, high SES, middle SES, and low SES to describe the three areas a family or an individual may fall into. When placing a family or individual into one of these categories any or all of the three variables (education, occupation, and income) can be assessed. Nearly all epidemiological studies use SES as an explanatory or a control variable, or for the selection of subjects or matching criteria (Wnkleby et al., 1992). Education         A persons educational attainment is considered to be the highest level (grade or degree) of education they have completed. Education is an important factor contributing to better job opportunities and a higher income, which can again impact an individuals health in a positive manner. Many studies have documented strong inverse associations between education and all-cause mortality (Feldman et al., 1989) as well as life expectancy (Sagan, 1987). Education may facilitate the acquisition of positive social, psychological, and economic skills and assets, and may provide insulation from adverse influences (Wnkleby et al., 1992). Higher education enhances furthermore the access to health information and improves the health seeking behaviour, whereas a low educational level bears a higher risk of inadequate coping with stress, depression, and hostility (WHO, 2005). The most plausible hypothesis is that education may protect against disease by influencing life -style behaviors, problem-solving abilities, and values (Liberatos et al., 1988).Education is available for all individuals regardless of employment status, has high reliability and validity (Liberatos et al., 1988).         Over time, education has become the most commonly used measure of SES (Liberatos et al., 1988). Educational level is generally stable after early adulthood, easily reported, and can be collected as a continuous variable (Wnkleby et al., 1992). It is may be the most judicious SES measure for use in epidemiological studies (Wnkleby et al., 1992). In studies that have a cost or time restraint but need a measure of SES as a potential confounding variable, education is an expeditious choice (Wnkleby et al., 1992).         Education in Libya is free for all citizens. The 1969 Libyan Constitutional Declaration states,â€Å"Education is a right and a duty for all Libyans. It is compulsory until the end of primary school†. Libya boasts of the highest literacy and educational enrolment rates in North Africa (WHO, 2007). The adult literacy rate is 86.8% (male 94.5%, female 78.4%) (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2007). The main universities in Libya are: Al Fateh University (Tripoli) and Garyounis University (Benghazi). Significant numbers of Libyans attend university abroad, mainly in the United States of America and Europe (WHO, 2007).         During the late 1960s, the percentage of females in elementary education was between 11 and 19%. By early 1970 the rate shot up to 37% and by 1990 it had escalated to 48%. The percentage of women at university level developed from 3% in 1961 to 8% in 1966, 20% in 1981 and then to 43% in 1996. By the early 1990 the number of females at all levels of education became equal to the number of males (Otman Karlberg, 2007). Occupation         Occupational status as one component of SES encompasses both income and educational attainment. Occupational status reflects the educational attainment required to obtain the job and income levels that vary with different jobs and within ranks of occupations. Additionally, it shows achievement in skills required for the job. Occupational status measures social position by describing job characteristics, decision making ability and control, and psychological demands on the job. Occupation measures prestige, responsibility, physical activity, and work exposures (Susser et al., 1985).         In Libya, commencing with the Constitutional Declaration of 1969, which asserted the equality of all citizens before the law, and the Declaration of the Establishment of the Authority of the people in 1977, which asserted, â€Å"Women and men are equal as human beings. Discrimination between men and women is a flagrant act of oppression without any justification†.         The legal position of women was reinforced by a series of important enactments through the 1980s and 1990s, for example women can become judges since 1991, while many work as doctors and engineers in the oil industry (Otman Karlberg, 2007). Women were mobilized in the military and in the political system in the late 1970. There are also women lawyers and pilots. The percentage of women in the workforce is 32% (WHO, 2007). Income         Income refers to wages, salaries, profits, rents, and any flow of earnings received. Income can also come in the form of unemployment or workers compensation, social security, pensions, interests or dividends, royalties, trusts, alimony, or other governmental, public, or family financial assistance. Income reflects spending power, housing, diet, and medical care (Susser et al., 1985). That better health is associated with higher income is well established.         Income is related to health in three ways: through the gross national product of countries, the income of individuals, and the income inequalities among rich nations and among geographic areas (Marmot, 2002). The income measure of SES can be used as a quantitative measure but is often grouped into categories due to peoples reluctance and/ or inability to report their exact income. The sensitivity of this information is often problematic since many are unwilling to give out their income level, even in broad categories. Further complications with this measure include that it is relatively unstable over time and is age dependent since income tend to rise throughout ones career and then drop after retirement.(Loue Sajatovic, 2004)         The gross national income per capita (PPP international $) in Libya is US$ 14 710 (WHO, 2009). Approximately 7.4% of the Libyan population live below the poverty line (CIA, 2005 est.). In Libya, opportunities for upward social movement have increased; and petroleum wealth and the development plans of the revolutionary government have made many new kinds of employment available, thus opening up more well paid jobs for women especially among the educated young. Periodontal Health         This section deals with the normal features of the tissues of the periodontium, knowledge of which is necessary for an understanding of periodontal disease. A section specifically for periodontitis epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology and its main signs and symptoms is included. Normal Periodontal Anatomy         The tissues that surround and support the teeth for normal function form the periodontium (Greek peri- â€Å"around†; odont-, â€Å"tooth†). The periodontium consists of the gingiva, periodontal ligament, cementum and alveolar bone.         The gingiva is divided anatomically into the marginal (unattached), attached and interdental gingival. The marginal gingiva is the terminal edge of the gingiva surrounding the teeth like a collar, but is not adherent to it and it can be separated from the tooth surface with a periodontal probe. The cemento-enamel junction (CEJ) is where the enamel of the crown and the cementum of the root meet. The Marginal gingiva in normal periodontal tissues extends approximately 2mm coronal to the CEJ. The space between the marginal gingiva and the external tooth surface is termed the gingival sulcus. The probing depth of a clinically normal gingival sulcus in humans is 2 to 3 mm (Manfra-Maretta, 1990). The attached gingival is continuous with the marginal gingiva. It is firm, resilient, and tightly bound to the underlying alveolar bone. Attached gingiva is bordered coronally by the apical extent of the unattached gingiva, which is in turn defined by the depth of t he gingival sulcus. The apical extent of the attache
Friday, October 25, 2019
Life Without Parole Essay -- essays research papers fc
Capital Punishment in America Capital punishment should be viewed as the stripping away of humanity from a person. The death penalty itself should be "executed" because of racial inequities, the concept of murder, the possibility of error, lack of deterrence, the cost, and an overwhelmed legal system. "The goal of capital punishment is revenge" (Introduction 1). Capital punishment is simply an outlet for the bloodlust of the American people (Introduction 1). The death penalty is very discriminatory when it comes to racial issues. "The death penalty is fraught with abuses and the potential for abuse" (Moral Arguments 1). Capital punishment is largely "divided along racial lines" (Moral Arguments 1). "A 1990 report released by the Federal Government’s General Accounting Office found a ‘pattern of evidence indicating racial disparities in the charging, sentencing, and imposition of the death penalty after the Furman decision’" (Moral Arguments 1). In the 1970’s, Professor David Baldus examined sentencing patterns in Georgia. He reviewed over two-thousand five hundred homicide cases in Georgia and controlled for two-hundred and thirty non-racial factors. His conclusion was that "a person accused of killing a white was 4.3 times more likely to be sentenced to death than a person accused of killing a black" (Moral Arguments 1). Imagine the statistics when one adds the rest of the states in our country. Capital punishment is murder. It really doesn’t matter how you look at it. The end result is still the same. "What is the difference between the state killing and an individual killing" (Moral Arguments 1). It adds up to be the same end result. It is "one more dead body, one more set of grieving parents, and one more cemetery slot. When we execute someone, we are sending a profound message of cynicism" about the value of human life (Moral Arguments 2). "Every time we execute someone," we are sinking to the same level as the killer (Moral Arguments 2). "The American people have blood on their hands, and it will stay there until we finally remove this barbaric practice from our nation" (Moral Arguments 2). One of the most apparent reasons the d... ... The death penalty is based upon revenge against the murderer. All it adds up to at the end of the day is another corpse to bury. Works Cited "Death." http://donlemaire.homestead.com/deathpen~main.html. "Fight the Death Penalty in USA." www.fp.dk/index-uk.htm. "Innocence and the Death Penalty." www.essential.org/dpic/innoc.html. Greenberg, Jack. "Taking Sides." Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc. 1991. "Introduction." http://pages.prodigy.com/DC/vortex.intro.html. "Moral Arguments Against the Death Penalty." http://pages.prodigy.com/DC/vortex/moral.html. "Netmonkey’s Death Penalty Page." www.netmonkey.com/1998/features/death/death8.html. "Pragmatic Arguments Against the Death Penalty." http://pages.prodigy.com/DC/vortex/prag.html. United States. President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice. "The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society." New York: Avon, 1968.
Thursday, October 24, 2019
History of Statistics Essay
The history of statistics can be said to start around 1749 although, over time, there have been changes to the interpretation of the word statistics. By the 18th century, the term â€Å"statistics†designated the systematic collection ofdemographic and economic data by states. In the early 19th century, the meaning of â€Å"statistics†broadened to include the discipline concerned with the collection, summary, and analysis of data. Today statistics is widely employed in government, business, and all the sciences. Electronic computers have expedited statistical computation, and have allowed statisticians to develop â€Å"computer-intensive†methods. The Word statistics have been derived from Latin word â€Å"Status†or the Italian word â€Å"Statista†, meaning of these words is â€Å"Political State†or a Government. Shakespeare used a word Statist is his drama Hamlet (1602). In the past, the statistics was used by rulers. The application of statistics was very limited but rulers and kings needed information about lands, agriculture, commerce, population of their states to assess their military potential, their wealth, taxation and other aspects of government. Gottfried Achenwall used the word statistik at a German University in 1749 which means that political science of different countries. In 1771 W. Hooper (Englishman) used the word statistics in his translation of Elements of Universal Erudition written by Baron B.F Bieford, in his book statistics has been defined as the science that teaches us what is the political arrangement of all the modern states of the known world. There is a big gap between the old statistics and the modern statistics, but old statistics also used as a part of the present statistics. During the 18th century the English writer have used the word statistics in their works, so statistics has developed gradually during last few centuries. A lot of work has been done in the end of the nineteenth century. At the beginning of the 20th century, William S Gosset was developed the methods for decision making based on small set of data. During the 20th century several statistician are active in developing new methods, theories and application of statistics. Now these days the availability of electronics computers is certainly a major factor in the modern development of statistics. * Statistics helps in providing a better understanding and exact description of a phenomenon of nature. * Statistical helps in proper and efficient planning of a statistical inquiry in any field of study. * Statistical helps in collecting an appropriate quantitative data. * Statistics helps in presenting complex data in a suitable tabular, diagrammatic and graphic form for an easy and clear comprehension of the data. * Statistics helps in understanding the nature and pattern of variability of a phenomenon through quantitative obersevations. * Statistics helps in drawing valid inference, along with a measure of their reliability about the population parameters from the sample data. * Actuarial science is the discipline that applies mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance and finance industries. * Biostatistics is a branch of biology that studies biological phenomena and observations by means of statistical analysis, and includes medical statistics. * Business analytics is a rapidly developing business process that applies statistical methods to data sets (often very large) to develop new insights and understanding of business performance & opportunities * Chemometrics is the science of relating measurements made on a chemical system or process to the state of the system via application of mathematical or statistical methods. * Demography is the statistical study of all populations. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population, that is, one that changes over time or space. * Econometrics is a branch of economics that applies statistical methods to the empirical study of economic theories and relationships. * Environmental statistics is the application of statistical methods to environmental science. Weather, climate, air and water quality are included, as are studies of plant and animal populations. * Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine. * Geostatistics is a branch of geography that deals with the analysis of data from disciplines such as petroleum geology,hydrogeology, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, geochemistry, geography. * Operations research (or Operational Research) is an interdisciplinary branch of applied mathematics and formal science that uses methods such as mathematical modeling, statistics, and algorithms to arrive at optimal or near optimal solutions to complex problems. * Population ecology is a sub-field of ecology that deals with the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment. * Psychometrics is the theory and technique of educational and psychological measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. * Quality control reviews the factors involved in manufacturing and production; it can make use of statistical sampling of product items to aid decisions in process control or in accepting deliveries. * Quantitative psychology is the science of statistically explaining and changing mental processes and behaviors in humans. * Statistical finance, an area of econophysics, is an empirical attempt to shift finance from its normative roots to a positivistframework using exemplars from statistical physics with an emphasis on emergent or collective properties of financial markets. * Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force. * Statistical physics is one of the fundamental theories of physics, and uses methods of probability theory in solving physical problems. * Statistical thermodynamics is the study of the microscopic behaviors of thermodynamic systems using probability theory and provides a molecular level interpretation of thermodynamic quantities such as work, heat, free energy, and entropy.
Wednesday, October 23, 2019
Aristotle on the Soul Essay
Aristotle’s notion differs from the usual conception of a soul as some sort of substance occupying the body, existing separately and eternally. To him, the soul is the essence of a living thing. The soul is what makes an organism an organism at all by actualizing its potential for life, and it’s constituted by its capacity for activities essential to that specific type of being. His investigation into the nature of the soul demonstrates basic principles of his philosophical theories at work, including Hylomorphism, potentiality and actuality, and his four causes. His use of these theories in analyzing and teasing out the complexities of the soul make for a cohesive and comprehensive study, easily amenable with his other works. In this paper I will analyze his notion of the soul as described in De Anima, recounting how he came to define the soul, the explanation of the soul, how the souls of different kinds of ensouled beings differ, and his unique concept of how the soul is related to the body. Aristotle begins Book 1 of De Anima by stating that since the soul is a principle of animals, and here I will interpret animals to mean more broadly beings, describing its essence has implications beyond its obvious scope. In unfolding the nature of the soul, it is possible to determine which attributes belong to the soul alone and which belong to the organism in virtue of having a soul (Aristotle, De Anima 402a). So besides exploring the nature of life, his analysis will also seek to answer the question of whether all mental states (of the soul) are also material states of the body, or whether some attributes of the soul are unique to it. In doing so, we are confronted with the interesting implication of Aristotle’s position on the mind/body problem, to which I will get to later on. Returning to the question at hand (what is the soul? ), Aristotle starts his investigation by use of his explanatory theory of Hylomorphism, which states that substances are compounds of matter and form, and change occurs when form actualizes matter (Shields). There are three sorts of substances; form, matter, and the compound of form and matter. Matter is potentiality and form is actuality. Form actualizes matter, which possesses the potential to be what it is. So using Aristotle’s example of a bronze statue, the matter, in this case the bronze, only actualizes it’s potential of being a statue when it acquires the form, or the shape and features. Of interest is the third kind of substance, compounds, which make up living beings. The body is the substance as matter, so the soul is the substance as form or shape. Here we get to Aristotle’s preliminary definition of the soul as the actuality of a natural body having life potentially (Aristotle, De Anima 412). It is in virtue of this form, the soul, that makes an organism alive. Without the soul, the body would only have the capacity for life potentially, and so the soul is the essence (the form) of living things. This preliminary definition is taken a step further when Aristotle identifies the soul as the â€Å"first actuality of a natural body that is potentially alive†(Aristotle, De Anima 412a). He claims that the actuality that is the soul is like the actuality that is knowledge, in that we speak of it in two ways. We can distinguish between a state of knowing x and a state of attending to the knowledge of x, where the latter is more of an active process. The passive of state of knowing x is the first actuality, first because it must necessarily come prior to attending or remembering that knowledge i. e. potential precedes actual. Similarly, the soul of a sleeping person is like the passive state, the first actuality, while the soul of an awake person is like the active state. The soul must be the first actuality, for if not we would be forced to say a sleeping animal lacks a soul, a conclusion we do not want to make (Aristotle, De Anima 412a-412b). First actuality seems to correspond to a capacity to engage in the activity of the second actuality, and in this way is a kind of potential to exercise some function, like the ability to engage in thought. Aristotle makes this clear when he states that, â€Å"If the eye, for instance, were an animal, sight would be its soul†(Aristotle, De Anima 412b). Sight is the capacity of the eye for seeing, where sight is the form and the eye is the matter. The first actuality is the capacity for seeing, and the second actuality is seeing, actively exercising the potential ability. So it seems that beyond defining the soul as the ‘first actuality of a natural body that is potentially alive’, we can say the soul is a set of capacities that characterize living things. These characteristic capacities are different in different beings, and we will see that it is by these that Aristotle creates his hierarchy of ensouled beings or the degrees of souls. I will return to this distinction later in this paper, when describing how the souls of different ensouled beings differ. At this point we have a definition of the soul, but as Aristotle stresses throughout his various works, we must determine the cause or explanation in order to truly grasp the essence, and therefore get at complete picture of his view of the soul. The definition just given explains the what, but a full account must explain the why. He states in the Physics, â€Å"for our inquiry aims at knowledge; and we think we know something only when we find the reason why it is so, i.e. , when we find its primary cause†(Aristotle, Physics 194b). His criteria for an adequate definition, one that is sufficient for knowledge, rest on his theory of causation and explanation. The four causes include the material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause. Material cause is what something is made of, the formal cause is the form or pattern of which a thing is what it is, the efficient cause refers to the agent of change or rest, and the final cause is the intended purpose of the change or the reason why a thing is done (Shields). We must, therefore, determine why the soul is what it is in virtue of these four general causes. The soul is the principle and the cause of the living body, for it is in virtue of the soul that the body is alive, and thus it plays an explanatory role. It is the cause of the living body in three of the four ways, as â€Å"the source of motion, as what something is for, and as the substance of ensouled bodies†(Aristotle, De Anima 415), corresponding to the efficient cause, the final cause, and the formal cause respectively. It is the source of motion in that it causes growth and decay in the organism. The soul is also the cause of the living body by being the final cause, as the body is merely an organ for the sake of the soul, aimed at the soul. And finally, the soul is the formal cause of the living body for it causes life by being the form and actuality of what is potentially. The body makes up the fourth cause, the material cause, by being the matter that makes up a living organism (Aristotle, De Anima 415). I will use Aristotle’s example of the nature of a house as described in Book One, when he is discussing the importance of form, in order to better illustrate the necessity for analysis of a concept under his theory of causation and explanation. To merely define a house as stones, bricks, and timbers, is not to capture its full essence. A house is stones, bricks, and timbers (material cause), built into an enclosed structure (formal cause), fashioned together by a carpenter (efficient cause), in order to provide shelter from the elements (final cause). We can describe the what, but without further details about the explanation, we don’t really know the nature of a house. Similarly the soul is why, it gives the explanation for, the life activities of a living body. At this point Aristotle’s notion of the soul is quite clear; it is the first actuality of a natural body that is potentially alive, it is a set of capacities for life-giving and defining activities of organisms, and it is the form, the source of motion, and the means (it directs) to the end of the living body. Souls of different living beings are differentiated by their capacities to engage in the activities characteristic of that type of organism, which comprise their livelihood and survival. It is these differentiating faculties that make up the soul. Among these faculties are the nutritive and reproductive, perceptive, locomotive, and the capacity for thought and understanding. Aristotle claims, â€Å"the soul is the principle of the potentialities we have mentionedâ€â€for nutrition, perception, understanding, and motionâ€â€and is defined by them†(Aristotle, De Anima 413). There are three types of souls, arranged in a nested hierarchy, so the possession of a higher soul entails possession of all that are below it. The lowest, or most basic, in this hierarchy is the nutritive soul. All living things possess the capacity for self-nourishment, for without this they would not live. Next is the sensitive soul, which is possessed only by animals. The highest type of soul is the rational soul, belonging only to humans. These three souls are differentiated by their function, corresponding to the ensouled being in possession of the soul with the power to exercise that function. While the animal soul possesses the nutritive and the sensitive, and the human soul the rational as well, each has but one unified soul with a various sets of capacities (Shields). The nutritive soul is the potentiality held by all living things to preserve it and equip it for life. The function of this soul is the use of nourishment and generation, or reproduction. Generation is the most natural function, as it is a means for a living being to participate in the future (the â€Å"everlasting and divine†) by producing something else of its own sort. The use of nourishment allows the being to preserve itself, only existing while it is nourished. Nourishment allows an organism to grow as well as decay, according to its form. Since all living things possess the nutritive soul, all living things have the capacity for self-nourishment, growth, decay, and for reproduction. Further, since all nourishment involves digestion, and digestion involves heat, all beings contain heat (Aristotle, De Anima 415-416). The sensitive, or perceptive soul, distinguishes plants from animals. Perception is a type of alteration, in that a suitable sense-organ in perception is affected or changed by an external object. The external object acts as the agent, possessing the qualities in actuality that the sense-organ possesses potentially. Aristotle describes that it is through an intermediate condition, such as air, that sense organs receive the forms or qualities of the objects of perception, not the matter, when involuntarily acted upon by the external object. Thus, the sensitive soul has the capacity to receive sensible forms, resulting in perception. The sense-organs become like the agent after being affected, or receiving the qualities (Shields). Again, we can see Aristotle returning to his theory of Hylomorphism in describing perception as the change in the sense-organ as a result of the acquisition of form. The potential of the sense-organ is made actual in virtue of the external object which possesses the form in actuality. Aristotle states that every animal has the sense of touch, but not all possess the sense of sight, hearing, taste and smell. Animals are further distinguished along these lines; while each possesses a nutritive and a sensitive soul, there are various degrees of complexity of the latter soul corresponding to the activities of the animal. Aristotle continues further that the possession of the perceptive soul implies that the animal has the capacity to desire, and desiring includes appetite, emotion, and wish. He also determines possession of this soul entails the ability to feel pleasure and pain and it is in virtue of this soul that some animals possess the power of locomotion (Aristotle, De Anima 413-415). The rational soul, perhaps the most difficult section to interpret of De Anima, is essential and indicative of humans alone. It is in virtue of the rational soul, the intellect, that we come to know and understand things. The intellect is the seat of thought and thus reason. Thinking is similar to perception, as it involves the reception of form by a suitable capacity. However, while the object of perception is external and is the composite of form and matter, the object of thought is within the soul and is form alone (Shields). While hard to follow, I believe the objects of thought are the forms of forms; they get their intelligible forms in virtue of the sensible forms sensed in perception. Aristotle discusses the concept of â€Å"appearances†, which are different from perceptions and beliefs, for appearances exist while we sleep, with no external stimuli actualizing the ‘sensation’, and beliefs involve conviction, while appearances do not. Appearances are images resembling objects of perception (Aristotle, De Anima 428). It is helpful to think of appearances as the representation of reality we see in imagination. I believe Aristotle is claiming that it is these appearances that are the objects of thought. In intellection, the mind is made to be like the object of thought through reception of its intelligible form. The intellect is pure potentiality, it potentially has all of these objects of thought, and only in thought do these intelligible forms become actualized in the mind (Shields). As Aristotle’s philosophical worldview rests on a Hylomorphic principle, it is difficult to see how the alteration, bringing the intellect from potentiality to actuality in thought, comes about. In perception, this is in virtue of an external object that acts as an agent for change in the sense-organ. But what is the agent of change in intellection? Aristotle divides the intellect into the active and passive intellects. The active intellect acts as the agent of change; when the mind thinks the active intellect actualizes the intelligible forms in the passive intellect. The passive intellect stores the concepts of knowledge and intelligible forms in potentiality, to be recalled by the active intellect during thought. This means however, that the actual must precede the potential, contrary to what was discussed above. The nature of the active intellect is its activity, so it must be unremittingly active in order to cause the passive intellect to act and us to have thoughts and reason. If it is continuously active, this part of the rational soul must be eternal and thus stands in stark contrast with the rest of the souls Aristotle posits, but this controversial point is something I will not take up in this paper (Shields). Returning to the more broad implications of De Anima and Aristotle’s larger philosophical framework, we can analyze his notion of the soul in terms of the mind/body problem. Explicating his position, or lack thereof, on this matter will also illustrate his views on the soul in terms of unity, oneness, seperability, and mortality. Substance dualism is the position that the mind is separate from the body and that the mind is non-physical, often posited as being eternal. Aristotle’s conception of the soul, however, is that it is not ontologically distinct from the body. All nourishment, perception, and even thinking require a body. Further, as the living body is the composite of form (soul) and matter (body), it represents one inextricable substance. The soul and body are inseparable, except for perhaps the active intellect. While we can conceptually distinguish between a soul and a body, or form and matter, they are but one substance, related in terms of this composite. So when the body perishes, the soul does as well. Leaving aside the debated active intellect, the soul cannot be immortal. Therefore, Aristotle cannot be said to be a substance dualist. Materialism, on the other hand, claims that all that exists is physical and that substance is pure matter. But as has been said, Aristotle’s position on the soul takes it to be pure form and thus immaterial. The primary substance of a living body is the unity of body and soul, which is not purely matter. So, he cannot be a materialist either. While Aristotle does not clearly take a position towards this dilemma, he does suggest a new way of viewing it. Instead of presupposing the mind and speculating on the body as dualists do, or vice versa if you are a materialist, identifying the two as a unit and illuminating the association in terms of unity relations may prove more feasible. To summarize, Aristotle’s notion of the soul is that it is the first actuality of a natural body that is potentially alive. The concept of first actuality represents a sort of capacity for undertaking the action that characterizes the second actuality. So the soul is life-giving and facilitates the body for undertaking the actions necessary for survival and well-being. Plants have only the nutritive soul, enabling them to sustain themselves and reproduce. Animals have this soul as well as the sensitive soul, which facilitates perception and feelings of pleasure, pain, desire, appetite, etc. Humans are further distinguished in virtue of the elusive rational soul, which gives us the unique power of understanding, thought, and rationality. Aristotle’s soul is unlike other conceptions as it posits that although the body and soul is one, inseparable unit, the soul is immaterial while the body is physical. His consistency on his views of the soul with his views of nature and reality are obvious, as he frequently makes use of his broader theories of Hylomorphism, his four causes, and the potential/actual nature of everything that exists, making for a powerfully cohesive portfolio. Works Cited Aristotle, Terence Irwin, and Gail Fine. â€Å"De Anima. †Aristotle: Selections. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. , 1995. 402-34. Print. Aristotle, Terence Irwin, and Gail Fine. â€Å"Physics. †Aristotle: Selections. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. , 1995. 184-263. Web. Shields, Christopher. â€Å"Aristotle’s Psychology. †(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). N. p. , 23 Aug. 2010. Web. 20 Dec. 2012.
Tuesday, October 22, 2019
British effects on native americans essays
British effects on native americans essays As the discovery of the New World progressed, large numbers of white men and women migrated to the North American continent, and profoundly altered Native Americans lives culturally and economically. Wherever they lived Indians discovered that conquest strained traditional ways of life. Mostly all Native American groups were forced to devise new ways to survive in physical and social atmospheres that eventually eroded tradition One of the leading pioneers for exploration of the New World was the British. As they migrated onto the North American continent, the British brought along with them an ethnocentric attitude. Which meant from the beginning they thought of the Native Americans as lesser people and that their culture, and way of conducting their economy was wrong. With this attitude, the British tried to civilize the Indians by making them dress like colonists, and force them to ac-cept Christianity. These forced changes were a stepping stone to the diminishing of Native American culture. In addition to that, the British also brought with them disease. Since Native Americans had little natural immunity to common European diseases, when they were exposed to influenza, typhus, measles, and especially small pox they died in the millions. This rapid spread of disease caused a huge blow to the Native American population, sometimes wiping out entire tribes and along with them their entire culture wo uld be erased. The fur trade, more than any other activity, contributed to the white exploration and opening of the wilderness and it led to extensive contacts between whites and Indians. All the colonial powers, especially the British, were involved in the mass commercial exploitation of animal skin. Competition among the European nations and among the Indian tribes for the fur trade was a major factor in many of the intertribal conflicts and colonial war. ...
Monday, October 21, 2019
Manhattan Conspiracy1 essays
Manhattan Conspiracy1 essays Thesis: The research for the first Atomic bomb was done in the United States, by a group of the best scientists; this research was given the name of The Manhattan Project. On Monday July 16th, 1945, a countdown for the detonation of the first atomic bomb took place near Los Alamos, New Mexico. This atomic bomb testing would forever change the meaning of war. As the atomic bomb was detonated it sent shock-waves all over the world. There was endless research done on the bomb in the United States. The research was called The Manhattan Engineer District Project but it was more commonly known as "The Manhattan Project."1 The Manhattan Project was brought by fear of Germany and it's atomic research. On account of the fear of Germany the United States took action upon testing their own atomic bomb. Once the bomb was tested, the United States had to decide whether it should be used and if so, where? Then there was the process of dropping the bomb. The Manhattan Project was overall one of t he highest and most significant projects ever done in the United States.2 The United States government was shocked by the news of German scientists discovering nuclear fission. The news came to the United States from Albert Einstein. Einstein found out the nuclear fission information from a German physicist named Leo Szilard. He then told it to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and urged him to start an investment toward atomic research. 3The research would then help construct an atomic weapon of mass destruction. Roosevelt was not especially concerned about investing in atomic weapon research because he didn't plan on getting involved in the War. When Pearl Harbor was attacked by the Japanese, Roosevelt entered the war and sent significant funds to the construction of the atomic weapon. Roosevelt speeded up the process of research by having General Groves setup a committee of the brightest minds from all around the world. Because most...
Sunday, October 20, 2019
Entitlement Programs Their Role in the Federal Budget
Entitlement Programs Their Role in the Federal Budget The federal budget process divides federal spending into two areas: mandatory and discretionary. Discretionary spending is spending that is reviewed each year by Congress and is subject to annual decisions made during the appropriations process. Mandatory spending consists of entitlement programs (and a few smaller things). What is an entitlement program? It is a program that establishes certain eligibility criteria and anyone fitting that criteria may receive its benefits. Medicare and Social Security are the two largest entitlement programs. Anyone meeting the eligibility requirements may receive benefits from these two programs. The cost of entitlement programs is soaring as members of the Baby Boom generation retire. Many people say that the programs are on automatic pilot because it is extremely difficult to cut their cost. The only way that Congress can decrease the cost of such programs is to change the eligibility rules or the benefits that are included under the programs. Politically, Congress has not liked to change the eligibility rules and tell voters that they no longer can receive the benefits they once were entitled to receive. Yet entitlement programs are the most expensive portion of the federal budget and are a major factor in the national debt.
Saturday, October 19, 2019
Gas consumption in the united states Research Paper
Gas consumption in the united states - Research Paper Example A study of gas consumption can help alleviate challenge and improve on efficient use of the commodity. The negative externalities can also be addressed after knowing the extent of gasoline use. The purpose of this research paper is to find how petrol tax, average income, proportion of driver’s population, paved way affects consumption of petrol gas. For this research, the data covers forty eight states and the sample represents the whole population. Introduction The research bases its data from the individual that owns vehicles and firm owner with the appliance that use petrol. Furthermore, the research targets small and large companies all industries. The availability of this information is crucial in preparing this report as it assures of credibility of the source of raw data. The report is reliable because the majorities of the respondent are literate and have the expertise and ability to give information accurately and provide insight in the gas industry. The report relies on a grass root survey of the entire gas industry for one year and forecasts on future consumption. The forecast of the report reveals a combined outcome of an entire target population. The methods used to collect and analyses the data limit a margin of error less than plus or minus 0.2%. Therefore, I can guarantee that the research paper provides a true picture of gas consumption in a year (Hejny S, etal 2003). ... dia have reported that gasoline has become cheaper, and the U.S is less dependent on imports from the Middle East, but this information remains elusive. The president on September 18 said that the country is not yet oil independent, but there is a boom of oil production that could benefit the country in future (Stratfor Geopolitical Diary, 2013). Oil production in the country skyrocketed to a high of 8 million barrels in a day, the highest production since 1989. Energy is used in heating and production of petrochemicals products. The usage can be broadly categorized to power generation and transport fuels. All the countries energy comprises natural gas, renewable wind power, coal, and finally nuclear power. In the U.S, petrol is derived from imports and domestic production of crude oil. The country produce it own coal and is almost being independent in its natural gas. The U.S and Canada oil deposit are not sufficient to rid off the country from global suppliers (Stratfor Geopolitica l Diary, 2013). One of the main agenda of the U.S government is security, and the country cannot produce enough energy for its people. Therefore, increasing production of oil ensures energy security for the country. However, this cannot be the only way to cure ‘addiction’ to oil. Companies like the GM and Tesla are now developing electric cars that use battery instead of oil. This technology can swipe the use of gas to electricity in the near future (Stratfor Geopolitical Diary, 2013) The energy consumption in the United States has decreased compared to China. China currently tops the world in energy consumption. The U.S consumption has decreased by 1.6% since 2007. It has, however, consumed twice that of the European countries. In 2011, oil was the main source of energy at 36% with
Friday, October 18, 2019
Astronomy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Astronomy - Essay Example 4). Explain how type I and Type II. Supernovae occur. 1). The four main grouping of stars as depicted by the Hertzprung- Russel diagram are dwarf (white and red) stars, main sequence grouping stars, giant stars and supergiant stars (p. 142). The white dwarf stars are Sirius B, Wolf 486, Van Maanen's star, Procyon B, Wolf 1346 and 40 Eridani B. The size characteristic of these stars is ranging from 0.008 R to 0.03 R. The stars in the white dwarf category have temperatures ranging from 5,000 K to 25, 000 K. In between the white dwarf stars and the main sequence grouping we have Bernard's star. Bernard's star is a red dwarf. It has a radius of about 0.1 R and 150 L/L. Bernard's star is also the coolest star with temperatures of 2900 K. The white and red dwarf stars have Mv > 15. The main sequence stars are Aldebaran B, Alpha Centauri B, the Sun, Altair, Sirius, Procyon A, Vega, Rigel B, Pollux, Spica B, Spica A, Adara and Capella B. The luminosity class of these stars is V. The size of these stars vary from 1R to 10R. The stars in the main sequence grouping vary from 7,000 L/L to 85,000 L/L. The main sequence grouping stars have temperatures ranging from 3700 K for Aldebaran B to 30,000 K for Adara. The main sequence stars have between 5- 10 Mv. The next sequence of stars are the giants. Included in the giant classification of stars are Capella A, Aldebaran A, Arcturus, Mira and Canopus. The giant classification of stars have radii which vary from 10 R to 100 R. The luminosity class of the giant stars are III. The giant stars have a Mv between 0- 5. The next sequence is the supergiant sequence of stars. This includes Polaris, Deneb, Rigel A and Alnilam. The supergiants temperatures range from 10,000 K to 30,000K. The luminosity class is Ib. The largest stars are Betegeuse and Antares,.Betelgeuse has a size of 1000 R. Antares has a size of about 2000 R. The Mv for these stars is – 5 (p. 143). 2). A star is born from the thin gases of space. When a star is bo rn, there is normally a large cloud of gas and dust. The thin gases of space are known as the interstellar medium ( p. 162). When enough hydrogen is compressed through the gravity of these stars, hydrogen fusion is achieved. In the center core of these stars there is a helium core. A teaspoon of mass of helium from the center of a star would weigh more than a ton. When enough helium is compressed in the center of the star, there is an abrupt explosion of intense magnitude called a helium flash. For this particular moment in time, the center of the newly born star produces more energy per second than an entire grouping of stars. This helium flash causes the center of the star to increase in temperature, whereas a great number of electrons become excited by the reaction. This causes the hydrogen to fuse into helium. At that point, the star is born with a self sustaining hydrogen fusion reaction at its shell. Often there is a helium fusion reaction at the center of the star. The size o f the star is of the utmost importance, stars less than 0.40 solar masses never get enough energy to continue the helium fusion reaction process. Stars which are greater than 3 solar masses experience degeneration at their core before this phenomenon occurs (p. 187). In the star there are two types of fusion reactions, helium fusion at the center and hydrogen fusion at the shell. 3). A star begins to die when the helium fusion which occurs at its center begins to produce carbon, oxygen and neon. As the fusion
Money Management Midterm-1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words
Money Management Midterm-1 - Essay Example It is imperative to note that, the insurance companies are obliged to make regular and lifelong payments until the holder dies (Brealey & Myers, 1997). Consider the formula of calculating life annuity returns Payout= P*R*(1+R) exponent N/ (1+R) Whereby P is the principal, R interest rate and payout refers to the periodic payment. Take a percentage interest of 6% and use the annuity calculator for easy calculation. For a single life annuity, fixed amount to be paid is 3,333 per month. This adds up to EUR 39,996 annually. Therefore, annual periodic payment would be: A = EUR 39,996 Now I believe that I would need more money than EUR 39,996 annually. There would be different factors that would reduce the value of EUR 39,996 at that time like inflation. Therefore, when I retire and I think EUR 45,000 should be a valuable amount that I would need every year to spend my life happily. In order to have this amount every year, the interest rate should be 7% as calculated using Goal Seek option in Microsoft Excel. The life expectancy and retirement age considered in this context is 70 and 55 years respectively. PART II- SHARE ANALYSIS This part intends to examine and analyze two companies from the investment analysis. Various financial ratios will be applied to analyze the performances of the company. The implication created by the ratios will be used to recommend a suitable company for investors to invest. The two companies intended for analysis for this report are Lockheed Martin Corporation and Altera Corporation. Lockheed Martin Corporation Background information about the company Lockheed Martin is a global leader in providing aeronautics and defense security services. The company is the world’s largest federal contractor of the agency with unique product portfolio. Headquarter of the company is situated in Bethesda, Maryland in Washington Metropolitan Area. The company is present in more than 75 countries. The company has partnership with more than 300 indust ry players across the globe. It employs around 120,000 employees worldwide who include 80,000 scientists, engineers and IT professionals. This research establishes that, Lockheed reported $46.5 billion revenue in 2011 through its portfolio that includes aeronautics, electronics system, IT and global services, and space system. Net Income of the company is $2.65 billion in 2011. Presently, its share price is $93. Financial Ratios of Lockheed Martin Earnings per Share The Earnings per share shows how much return a shareholder is earning for each share (Friedlob and Plewa, 1996). The earnings per share of the Lockheed Martin were 7.81 in 2011. However, the average 3-year EPS growth rate of the stock is zero. Price Earnings Ratio Price Earnings ratio is the calculated by the following formula. Price earnings ratio = the market price per share/ annual earnings per share. A higher P/E of the stock implies that, investors are paying more for earning every dollar consequently; the share bec omes more expensive compared to the
Thursday, October 17, 2019
ISM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words
ISM - Essay Example â€Å"There are many ways to define Globalisation. Ruud Lubbets in his article â€Å"Globalisation and Sustainable Development†describes globalisation as â€Å"the phenomenon that the degree of global human interaction increases to such an extent that both its primary effects and the reactions it provokes, give rise to numerous new developments†( Ali, Winter & May, 2007, p.1). Globalisation is the interaction between economies, technologies and politic A number of companies, increasingly, are looking forward towards breaking the cultural barriers to extend the businesses further in a global environment. This has increased the requirement of the employees to get accustomed to the foreign cultural settings. Apart from that International Marketing training demands a detailed program to make the employees aware of the various theories and practices in the arena of international marketing. The globalisation dreams have presented a new challenge for the firms including the challenge to develop competent managers, able to work in the new environments with more efficiency. With increasing numbers of mergers and acquisitions, the firms are also expected to bring in new employees with different origins, languages and national culture adding more complexities to the different organizational cultures. â€Å"The firms thus need to develop systems and processes not only to train managers for expatriate assignments but also to handle cultural diversity. This task can be achieved by well designed cross-cultural training programs which will help employees in coping up with the stress and cultural shock while dealing with a new culture†(Pande & Krishnan, n.d., p.2). In China, Telmarket would require a culture specific training to make its employees competent enough to deal with the customers with enough respect to Chinese culture and their business environments. After having a review on the respective reviews the following issues have been identified for the cross cultural training. The time factor in the training would require considering two factors including punctuality and relationship dimensions. Some cultures may take more comparatively more time for relationship building while this may not be at all acceptable in others. So, it is of utmost importance to consider Chinese business culture barriers related to time required to be taken care of. In China, there exists a linguistic barrier as Chinese people prefer their language in business contexts (METP, 2008). Adding to it, even the pronunciation is quite different in China, which is required to be taken care of. There are a number of evidences that failing to align the brand name in accordance to the Chinese language made the brands to fail in the Chinese market. So, Telmarket must consider this point with high significance and must train its employees on the linguistic factor. The training program would also include a detailed training regarding the business practices. The b usiness practices may differ in China as they encourage open discussion; although that is required to be done with enough respect to the seniority and old traditions. The training would also require introducing methods and programs to counter stress and to interpret the situations in a positive way. The employees would have to understand the situations on both from their own and from other perspectives. The way to express the
Article Summary Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Article Summary - Research Paper Example Now as per the new initiatives, the banks’ lending loans would be able to borrow extra ?5 from FLS for every ?1 they lend to businesses (BBC, 2013, April 24). The extension has been widely accepted but some economic experts still feel that more aggressive actions need to be taken in this regard. Upcoming report for national statistics is expected to show that economy remains flat. Funding for Lending Scheme (FLS) was introduced in August 2012 to bring an increase in bank lending by around ?60bn. Main hope is that this initiative will help keeping economy out of recession and improve the lending and borrowing cycle. Banks borrow finds from Bank of England cheaply and the then passes it on as low interest loans to households and small businesses. The main objective is give incentives to businesses to borrow more money from the banks but there are fears that individuals might not want to borrow much at the current moment of time. Initial responses from the scheme has not been as encouraging as only few banks stepped in the first quarter but the program gradually took off. This scheme has negatively affected the savers and investors in bank deposits as they now have less interest to get and the lending institutions are not pushed to encourage people to invest in savings accounts. Savings account offerings have gone down to 3% now. The mechanism for Funding and lending scheme is that when lenders approach bank of England, they swap their assets with the bank. And treasury bills are provided to them in return. Then the banks borrow cheap money from other lending institutions in wholesale financial markets with the backing of these treasury bills. The commercial banks are then able to use these bits of paper as top quality backing with which to borrow cash in the wholesale financial markets, from other lenders. With the Treasury's backing, the idea is that they will be able to borrow funds at very cheap rates. To keep performance levels in check initially the b anks will access 5% of funds they lend and as their lending increases, they can borrow more. On the other end if the lending decreases, then the banks will have to pay interest of 1.5% as compared to just 0.25% at initial stage. For the protection of tax payer’s bank of England uses the concept of hair cut. The banks will have to pledge the collateral more than worth of papers being issued by the Bank of England. In this case if a bank borrows ?1 Treasury bill then it has to pledge more than ?1, amount such as ?1.10 to ?1.20. So if the value of asset falls then tax payers would be somewhat protected as the bank of England would not suffer top slice of the loss. Analysis: Positive Chain reaction: On the face of it, it seems to be a good scheme as more economic activity can be generated on microeconomic level and the economy of England can have a positive effect due to that. If more money is available to the people than they can open new businesses, which in turn will generate more jobs. This can lead to increase in purchasing patterns of general public, which is healthy for businesses in return. Due to increased jobs and earnings, people have more money available to save, which is usually deposited in banks. The banks can then lend that money to businesses and earn their interests as well. So this scheme is aimed to achieve this positive chain reaction. Many economists has positive expectations from this scheme and there is a hope among representative party in England that this scheme might be a breakthrough initiative
Wednesday, October 16, 2019
Porters diamond model was developed to explain the competitive Essay
Porters diamond model was developed to explain the competitive advantage of globally leading industries in different countries. To what extent do you believe that the model is effective in achieving this - Essay Example Intensity of global competition is very high today mainly due to the fast growth of emerging economies like China, India, and Brazil. Alliances of emerging economies like BRICS play a significant role in influencing the competitiveness of national economies. This paper will analyse to what extent the Porter’s diamond model is effective in achieving its stated objectives giving particular focus to concepts of industry clusters, diamond model, and emerging nations. According to traditional economic theories, the major factors affecting the competitive advantage of regions or nations were land, location, natural resources, labour, and the population size. As none of these factors can be influenced by external forces, people had believed that national prosperity was passive or inherited and hence nothing could be done to improve the situation. However, Porter argued that sustained industrial growth is not depended on these basic inherited factors. In order to replace this traditional misconception, Porter introduced a concept called industry cluster, which represents a group of interconnected firms, suppliers, and related industries in a particular location. He stated that competitive advantage of nations is determined by four interlinked economic factors existing in such industry clusters. The theorist also suggested that these economic factors can be significantly influenced by strong technological and knowledge base, government support, skill ed workforce, and culture. According to a report by the Economist Intelligence Unit (2011), â€Å"there are few economic development policies as popular as clusters†. Recognising the importance of clusters, today countries, regions, and even cities strive to develop a network of complementary and competitive firms. The recent global financial crisis substantially increased the significance of clusters. The report also says that locating firms in the same place does not constitute clusters unless there
Article Summary Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Article Summary - Research Paper Example Now as per the new initiatives, the banks’ lending loans would be able to borrow extra ?5 from FLS for every ?1 they lend to businesses (BBC, 2013, April 24). The extension has been widely accepted but some economic experts still feel that more aggressive actions need to be taken in this regard. Upcoming report for national statistics is expected to show that economy remains flat. Funding for Lending Scheme (FLS) was introduced in August 2012 to bring an increase in bank lending by around ?60bn. Main hope is that this initiative will help keeping economy out of recession and improve the lending and borrowing cycle. Banks borrow finds from Bank of England cheaply and the then passes it on as low interest loans to households and small businesses. The main objective is give incentives to businesses to borrow more money from the banks but there are fears that individuals might not want to borrow much at the current moment of time. Initial responses from the scheme has not been as encouraging as only few banks stepped in the first quarter but the program gradually took off. This scheme has negatively affected the savers and investors in bank deposits as they now have less interest to get and the lending institutions are not pushed to encourage people to invest in savings accounts. Savings account offerings have gone down to 3% now. The mechanism for Funding and lending scheme is that when lenders approach bank of England, they swap their assets with the bank. And treasury bills are provided to them in return. Then the banks borrow cheap money from other lending institutions in wholesale financial markets with the backing of these treasury bills. The commercial banks are then able to use these bits of paper as top quality backing with which to borrow cash in the wholesale financial markets, from other lenders. With the Treasury's backing, the idea is that they will be able to borrow funds at very cheap rates. To keep performance levels in check initially the b anks will access 5% of funds they lend and as their lending increases, they can borrow more. On the other end if the lending decreases, then the banks will have to pay interest of 1.5% as compared to just 0.25% at initial stage. For the protection of tax payer’s bank of England uses the concept of hair cut. The banks will have to pledge the collateral more than worth of papers being issued by the Bank of England. In this case if a bank borrows ?1 Treasury bill then it has to pledge more than ?1, amount such as ?1.10 to ?1.20. So if the value of asset falls then tax payers would be somewhat protected as the bank of England would not suffer top slice of the loss. Analysis: Positive Chain reaction: On the face of it, it seems to be a good scheme as more economic activity can be generated on microeconomic level and the economy of England can have a positive effect due to that. If more money is available to the people than they can open new businesses, which in turn will generate more jobs. This can lead to increase in purchasing patterns of general public, which is healthy for businesses in return. Due to increased jobs and earnings, people have more money available to save, which is usually deposited in banks. The banks can then lend that money to businesses and earn their interests as well. So this scheme is aimed to achieve this positive chain reaction. Many economists has positive expectations from this scheme and there is a hope among representative party in England that this scheme might be a breakthrough initiative
Tuesday, October 15, 2019
Contemporary Philosophy Essay Example for Free
Contemporary Philosophy Essay On the first page of Being and Time, Heidegger describes the project in the following way: Our aim in the following treatise is to work out the question of the sense of being and to do so concretely. Heidegger claims that traditional ontology has prejudicially overlooked this question, dismissing it as overly general, indefinable, or obvious. Instead Heidegger proposes to understand being itself, as distinguished from any specific entities. †Being†is not something like a being. Being, Heidegger claims, is what determines beings as beings, that in terms of which beings are already understood. Heidegger is seeking to identify the criteria or conditions by which any specific entity can show up at all. If we grasp Being, we will clarify the meaning of being, or sense of being, whereby sense Heidegger means that in terms of which something becomes intelligible as something. According to Heidegger, as this sense of being precedes any notions of how or in what manner any particular being or beings exist, it is pre-conceptual, non-propositional, and hence pre-scientific. Thus, in Heideggers view, fundamental ontology would be an explanation of the understanding preceding any other way of knowing, such as the use of logic, theory, specific ontology or act of reflective thought. At the same time, there is no access to being other than via beings themselvesâ€â€hence pursuing the question of being inevitably means asking about a being with regard to its being. Heidegger argues that a true understanding of being can only proceed by referring to particular beings, and that the best method of pursuing being must inevitably, he says, involve a kind of hermeneutic circle, that is as he explains in his critique of prior work in the field of hermeneutics, it must rely upon repetitive yet progressive acts of interpretation. Thus, Heidegger also conceptualized that being with time prior of having that time alone. This means that we can’t have time by simply telling that time exists but we also need to have that sense of being or the individual being to say that time really exist. Time in other hand, makes a history because of that sense of being which Heidegger rely on with his work of the Time and Being.
Monday, October 14, 2019
Theory And Practice Of Supervision
Theory And Practice Of Supervision Supervision theories and practices began emerging as soon as counsellors started to train other counsellors (Bernard Goodyear, 2009). Several different theoretical models have developed to clarify and support counselling supervision. The focus of early models of supervision had generally been based on counselling theories (such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, Adlerian or client-centred), but these orientation-specific models have begun to be challenged as supervision has many characteristics that are different to counselling. Competency as a counsellor does not automatically translate into competency as a supervisor, and when supervisee/supervisor orientations differ, conflicts may arise (Falender Safranske, 2004). More recent models of supervision have integrated theories from psychology and other disciplines, for one-to-one, peer and group supervision. As supervision has become more focused, different types of models emerged, such as developmental models, integrated models, and agency models. As a result, these models have to some extent replaced the original counselling theory models of supervision, and supervisors may utilise several different models to qualify and simplify the complexities of supervision (Powell, 1993). This paper will briefly look at a definition of supervision, and an outline of two different models agency and developmental. What is Supervision? Supervision is the process where by a counsellor can speak to someone who is trained to identify any psychological or behavioural changes in the counsellor that could be due to an inability to cope with issues of one or more clients. A supervisor is also responsible for challenging practices and procedures, developing improved or different techniques, and informing clients of alternative theories and/or new practices, as well as industry changes. The supportive and educative process of supervision is aimed toward assisting supervisees in the application of counselling theory and techniques to client concerns (Bernard Goodyear, 2009). The supervisor is responsible for monitoring the mental health of their supervisee, in turn protecting the public from unhealthy counsellors. Counsellors can face issues such as transference and burn out without any recognition of the symptoms. A supervisor should notice the symptoms before the counsellor (Australian Counsellors Association, 2009). Supervision is a formal arrangement for counsellors to discuss their work regularly with someone who is experienced in counselling and supervision. The task is to work together to ensure and develop the efficiency of the counsellor/client relationship, maintain adequate standards of counselling and a method of consultancy to widen the horizons of an experienced practitioner (ACA, 2009). The supervisors primary role is to ensure that their clients are receiving appropriate therapeutic counselling. By ensuring the counsellor continually develops their professional practice in all areas, the supervisor ensures a counsellor remains psychologically healthy. The supervisor is also responsible for detecting any symptoms of burn out, transference or hidden agendas in the supervisee. The Australian Counsellors Association (2009) recommends that supervisors cover the following as a matter of course: Evaluation Supervisees counselling; Developing process of self-review; Quality assurance; Best practice; Service outcomes of service delivery; Identifying risk for supervisee and clients; Referrals; Follow up on client progress; Helping the counsellor assess strengths and weaknesses. Education Establishing clear goals for further sessions; Providing resources; Modelling; Explaining the rationale behind a suggested intervention and visa versa; Professional development; Interpreting significant events in the therapy session; Convergent and divergent thinking; Use of self; Topping up; Facilitating peer connection; Duty of care; Legal responsibilities. Administration Procedures; Paperwork; Links; Accounting; Case planning; Record keeping; Insurance. Support Advocate; Challenge; Confront; Empower; Affirm; Availability; Empowering; Use of self. A range of different models have evolved to provide a framework for these topics within which supervisors of can organize their approaches to supervision, and act as an aid to understanding reality (Powell, 1993). Agency Model of Supervision Kadushin Kadushin describes a supervisor as someone to whom authority is delegated to direct, coordinate, enhance, and evaluate on-the-job performance of the supervisees for whose work he/she is held accountable. In implementing this responsibility, the supervisor performs administrative, educational, and supportive functions in interaction with the supervisee in the context of a positive relationship (Powell, 1993). In educational supervision the primary issue for Kadushin is the counsellor knowing how to perform their job well and to be accountable for work performed, and developing skills through learning and feedback. The object is to increase understanding and improve skill levels by encouraging reflection on, and exploration of the work (Tsui, 2005). In supportive supervision the primary issue is counsellor morale and job satisfaction, as well as dealing with stress. The stresses and pressures of the coaching role can affect work performance and take its toll psychologically and physically. In extreme and prolonged situations these may ultimately lead to burnout. The supervisors role is to help the counsellor manage that stress more effectively and provide re-assurance and emotional support (Tsui, 2005). The administrative function is the promotion and maintenance of good standards of work and adherence to organisational policies and good practice. This includes reviews and assessments. The interpretation here is that the supervisor inducts the counsellor into the norms, values and best practices. It is the community of practice dimension ensuring that standards are maintained (Tsui, 2005. Not every supervision session will involve all three areas or functions, and at different times there may be more of a focus on one area rather than another. The supervisor cannot avoid the pressure that arises from their responsibility to the workplace, other staff, and to clients. No simple model of supervision is to be expected to be practical in every situation. Supervisors are expected to adapt approaches to the developmental level of supervisees, and both must adapt to the varying demands of any professional situation (Powell, 1993). For this model, the focus of supervision is as a prompt for behavioural change and skill acquisition. The emphasis is on persuading staff to learn how to use oneself in counselling to promote behavioural change in the client (Powell, 1993). The supervisors attention should be on the activities of the supervisee rather than on study of the supervisee themselves. With a focus on the activity, rather than the worker, it allows the supervisee to listen to constructive criticism rather than feeling compelled to defend themselves from a personal attack (Tsui, 2005). This model has several strengths in that it is very flexible, and open to exploration and experimentation. It is also more challenging for both the supervisor and supervisee. This style of supervision can be tailored to meet different needs and variables. This model may prove unsatisfactory when the supervisor has insufficient experience to be able to provide proper direction and support, and where supervisor skills do not allow for appropriate evaluation of the supervisee (Powell, 1993). Developmental Models of Supervision Erskine Underlying developmental models of supervision is the notion that as people and counsellors we are continuously growing and maturing; like all people we develop over time, and this development and is a process with stages or phases that are predictable. In general, developmental models of supervision define progressive stages of supervisee development from novice to expert, each stage consisting of discrete characteristics and skills (Bradley Ladany, 2000). For example, supervisees at the beginning or novice stage would be expected to have limited skills and lack confidence as counsellors, while middle stage supervisees might have more skill and confidence and have conflicting feelings about perceived independence/dependence on the supervisor. A supervisee in a later developmental stage is expected to employ good problem-solving skills and be reflective about the counselling and supervisory process (Haynes, Corey, Moulton, 2003). Erskine (1982) identifies three stages in the development of the skills of a therapist, each of which represents specific characteristics and responds to specific training needs. In the beginning stage of training, therapists have operational needs as they are developing professional skills, a sound theoretical reference system, and intervention techniques. They also have emotional needs: to feel comfortable in their professional role, to be reassured of their ability to do the work, and to feel adequate to act in this new undertaking. This is the stage at which trainees most need positive motivations centred on their skills so that they can know their strengths and on which they can build their skills. Erskine (1982) suggests temporarily ignoring what the trainee does not do well so as to reduce any feelings of inadequacy and to support self esteem, provided this does not cause harm to the trainee or clients. During the intermediate stage of training, Erskine proposes that trainees need to reinforce their personal identity as therapists, learn to define the direction of treatment, and draw up a treatment plan. At the personal level, their goal is to integrate their sense of self and to work on their emotions in order to understand and solve any personal difficulties that might create obstacles to their contact with clients. According to Erskine, in this second phase, trainees personal therapy is of highest importance (Bradley Ladany, 2000). During the advanced stage of training, trainees need to learn various approaches and to integrate theoretical frameworks, to recognise alternative interventions, and to choose among them so as to encourage flexibility. Trainees must also practise self-supervision and learn to differentiate between observations of behaviour, and theorising about observations (Stoltenberg Delworth, 1987). One of the potential drawbacks of developmental models is that not only do people learn in different ways but they also develop at diverse speeds, in varied areas. The development model does not show how the supervisee develops and moves from one stage to the next, and how this progress is connected to the supervision process (Bradley Ladany, 2000). For this model, it is necessary to modify the relationship to meet the supervisees needs based on their current developmental level. Supervisors employing a development approach to supervision need to be able to accurately identify the supervisees current stage of development and provide feedback and support appropriate to that developmental stage, while at the same time assisting the supervisees advancement to the next stage (Stoltenberg Delworth, 1987) Commonalities Regardless of the model used or theoretical background, any model or theory of supervision should cover some common fundamental principles. Supervisors are responsible for the professional developmental of those under supervision. These responsibilities involve issues such as informed consent, confidentiality, and dual relationships (ACA, 2009). Ethical and legal concerns are central to supervision. The balance between a supervisory relationship and a therapeutic one only becomes a problem when the supervisor discovers that personal problems hold back the supervisee. The supervisory relationship becomes a dual relationship if the supervisor tries to become the students therapist. A dual relationship is considered unethical (Powell, 1993). Dual relationships can occur in different ways. A supervisory relationship can develop into a close, emotional relationship between supervisor and supervisee. The supervisory relationship will in this situation be less effective and supervision should not continue. In consensual relationships the emotional relationship can continue; however, the professional relationship has to end. The supervisory relationship needs to be governed by the same ethical principle as is the therapeutic process (Powell, 1993). Different ways of evaluating the supervisory process are important both for the supervisor and the supervisee. Establishing a contract for the supervisory relationship makes evaluation easier. The contract should include the students developmental needs, the supervisors competencies, and supervisory goals and methods (Stoltenberg Delworth, 1987). Throughout the supervision process, the supervisor is responsible for evaluating the quality of the supervisory relationship (Powell, 1993). This responsibility especially comes to bear when a conflict arises or an impasse develops. Investigating problems and challenges often begins with asking questions about various aspects of the supervisory relationship. When asking these questions, it is important to consider not only how the counsellor may be contributing to a problem but also how the supervisor may be contributing. The supervisor has a responsibility to ensure that confidentiality is maintained, and any information obtained in a clinical or consulting relationship is discussed only for professional purposes and only with persons clearly concerned with the case (ACA, 2009). Conclusion Supervision is not a senior counsellor watching over the shoulder of a new or junior counsellor. Nor is it a conversation between two practitioners, or a dialogue of personal matters with a counsellor. It is a distinct intervention, to enhance professional functioning and monitor the quality of counselling services being provided (Bernard Goodyear, 2009). Clinical supervision is a complex activity; it can be education or support, assists with confidence or doubts, it can process through different levels or stages. The competent clinical supervisor must embrace not only the domain of psychological science, but also the domains of client service and trainee development. The competent supervisor must not only comprehend how these various knowledge bases are connected, but also apply them to the individual case (Bradley Ladany, 2000). The purpose is to help identify obstacles that prevent the supervisee from learning, growing and ultimately helping their client. No matter what theoretical framework is used, supervision can be used as a means to develop professionally. Like any other relationship in life it is not perfect, nor is it an answer to every problem. Like any other relationship, it is necessary to be honest, consistent, and dependable, and work hard to build trust. Supervisors and supervisees have to work together to make it successful. Powell (1993) theorised that the emphasis should not be on why a counsellor feels a certain way, but on being able to put a end to behaviours that inhibit change. Powell advises professionals to develop their own model of supervision in order to understand what one is doing and why. Whatever model of supervision if employed, a supervisor should seek to encourage ongoing professional education, challenge the supervisee to improve their skills and techniques A supervisor should intervene where client welfare is at risk, and ensure that ethical guidelines and professional standards are maintained. A supervisee should endeavour to uphold ethical guidelines and professional standards, be open to change and alternative methods of practice, maintain a commitment to continuing education and consult the supervisor in cases of emergency. Supervision, regardless of any model used, should enable counsellors to acquire new professional and personal insights through their own experiences. REFERENCES Australian Counsellors Association (2009). Professional Supervision. Accessed 2nd February 2010. http://www.theaca.net.au/docs/Supervision_Complete.pdf Bernard, J. M., Goodyear, R. K. (2009). Fundamentals of clinical supervision (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn Bacon. Bradley, L.J., Ladany, N. (2000). Counsellor Supervision: Principles, Process and Practice. Philadelphia, PA: Brunner-Routlege. Erskine, R. G. (1982). Supervision for psychotherapy: Models for professional development. Transactional Analysis Journal, 12, 314-321. Falender, C. A., Shafranske, E. P. (2004). Clinical supervision: A competency-based approach. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Haynes, R., Corey, G., Moulton, P. (2003). Clinical supervision in the helping professions: A practical guide. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Powell, D. (1993). A developmental approach to supervision. In Clinical supervision in alcohol and drug abuse counselling. (p. 58-84). New York, NY: Lexington Books. Stoltenberg, C. D., Delworth, U. (1987). Supervising counsellors and therapists. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Tsui, Ming-Sum (2005). Social work supervision: contexts and concepts. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
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